Gothic Art & Architecture: The influence of liturgical practice and religious symbolism on church planning

At this time Church architecture had to symbolise Christian belief to a population that could generally not read or write. As the Liturgy was read in Latin, carvings and statues had a role to play to people who could not read for themselves, which further allowed church architecture to tell a story. As result it was in this period that religious symbolism and liturgical practice became an important part of church design and planning.

In Christianity, the term ‘the liturgy’ normally refers to a standardized order of events, ‘services’, observed during a religious service, be it a sacramental service or a service of public prayer. In term of church planning it encompassed the altar, sanctuary, choir, pulpit, apse, ambulatory, relics (their importance and positioning), chancery chapels, and the scale of the main vessel of the church primarily for pilgrims at this time as greater space was needed to overcome the narrowness and inability of churches to deal with crowds of pilgrims visiting the shrines.

The influence of religious symbolism on church planning was evident in the plan (Latin cross or cruciform), the structure (Gothic arch pointing towards heaven and the rib vault that made this possible), the soaring height (House of God) and the importance given to light (divine illumination).

Symbolic expression revolved around Christian sanctuary which is, liturgically and mystically, an image of the Heavenly Jerusalem – the vision as described by the Book of Revelation. Therefore symbolic significance of sacred architecture and cathedral carried a number of symbolic meanings most obvious being that it was the House of God. The scale and quality was meant to mark it out as this. The buildings became more clearly symbolic of what they were intended for. Further, as most dwellings were little more than mud huts, the construction of the church from stone served to set it apart as a building of extraordinary significance.

Three main aspects of a Gothic cathedral at this time were function (Gothic solution of logical problems such as pilgrimage and sermons), design – an emphasis on verticality and light (Gothic form as the expression of certain aesthetic principles) and significance (Gothic form as the symbolic expression of certain ideas).

The patrons were the towns (with great economic strength for civic and political reasons), the monastic orders and a great influence were the Crusades which began in 1096 (triple portals, sculptures, verticality).

In form this meant keeping in mind the ‘function’ of the church, height, vertical emphasis, light and the Majesty (the western facade generally representing the Might of God on the approaching worshipper). Most cathedrals and great churches had a cruciform ground plan with a long nave crossed by a transept. The repetition of identical bays suggested the infinite vastness of heaven, the arches, vaults, triforium, tracery, choir stalls and clerestory suggested the numberless halls of the Holy City, the vault itself was seen as a symbol of heaven and the use of stained glass alluded to the Book of Revelation in which the walls of heaven are of precious stones, an image surely brought to life by stained glass.

Churches were in origin martyria, constructed as mausoleums housing the tombs of saints. They contained relics of a saint or other holy objects that were likely to draw pilgrimage. Christian belief in the power of relics, the physical remains of a holy site or holy person, or objects with which they had contact, is as old as the faith itself and developed alongside it. Relics were more than mementos. The New Testament referred to the healing power of objects that were touched by Christ or his apostles. The body of the saint provided a spiritual link between life and death and between man and God and was renowned for working miracles across Europe. The relics in turn bestowed honour and privileges upon the monasteries and cathedrals and hence they sought to obtain the prestigious relics, and when they succeeded, their proud accomplishment was sometimes celebrated in the decoration of their sanctuaries for example the scenes from Passion of St Vincent on the stained glass at the Abbey of St Germain des Pres, Paris (1014).

Also, by C13th, the rich were being buried in Churches, mostly where they were patrons hence evolved Chancery Chapels which in turn raised money and prestige for the churches for example St Denis, Paris (1140) which housed the bodies of the French royal family.

With the rise of the monasteries church buildings changed as well. The ‘two-room’ church’ became, in Europe, the norm, for example, St Denis (1140, France).

The first ‘room’, the nave, was the main body of the building, making the longer arm of the cross, where worshippers congregated. The term is from the Latin word for ship. A cathedral is symbolically a ship bearing the people of God through the storms of life. The roofed domes symbolised heaven. 

The second ‘room’, the sanctuary, was the preserve of the clergy and was where the Mass was celebrated. The altar in a church is a table on which is laid the Blessed Sacrament of bread and wine for consecration by a priest prior to use in the rite of Communion. The main altar in a church is therefore located in a designated space called the “sanctuary” (“holy place”). This could then only be seen, through the arch between the rooms, as from a distance, by the congregation, and the high altar and the bread of the communion, became the focus of the celebration.

The sanctuary was usually the most ornately decorated part of a church, creating a visual focus towards the altar. Sanctuaries, now providing for the singing of the offices by monks or canons, grew longer and became chancels, separated from the nave by a screen called the squint.

The transept is symbolic of the arms of the Cross, but also provides space for congregations and for additional chapels. Transept chapels are often dedicated to a particular saint, or to a particular aspect in the life and ministry of Christ, such as the Nativity or the Resurrection.

The part of the church which extends beyond the transept, this extension is architecturally termed the “choir”. The choir, where it exists, normally contains the choir stalls, and the “sanctuary” and the bishop’s throne.

Above the roof of the aisle are the clerestory windows which light the nave. The spiritual and mysterious quality of light is an important element of the religious symbolism of Gothic cathedrals. The huge windows were ornamented with stone tracery and filled with stained glass illustrating stories from the Bible and the lives of the Saints.

The aisles and the ambulatory facilitated the movement of people, even when the nave was full of worshippers.

The Basilica of St Denis (1140, France) as it now stands, is a large cruciform building of “basilica” form, that is, it has a central nave with lower aisles and clerestory windows. It has an additional aisle on the northern side formed of a row of chapels. The west front has three portals (alluding to the trinity), a rose window and one tower, on the southern side. The eastern end, which is built over a crypt, is apsidal, surrounded by an ambulatory and a chevet (resembling the ‘crown of thorns’) of nine radiating chapels. The choir (chancel) is suffused with light. The structure is supported by the pointed arch, the ribbed vault, the ambulatory with radiating chapels, the clustered columns supporting ribs springing in different directions and the flying buttresses which enabled the insertion of large clerestory windows filled with wall tracery and stained glass.

By size, Reims Cathedral is quite an extraordinary construction: designed to accommodate huge crowds, its gigantic dimensions include a surface area of 6650m2 and a length of 122m. Erected between 1211 and 1516, on the site of ancient thermae by Saint Nicaise (who later suffered martyrdom and died decapitated).

The cathedral of Notre Dame at Charters was rebuilt on site of a semi-destroyed Romanesque cathedral which supported the plan of a Gothic structure: large transepts, wide choir and unevenly spaces piers (allowing room for large congregations). The compact uniform plan is polygonal (as the new Gothic vault allowed the ground plan to take on a variety of shapes) with walls almost entirely given over to large stained glass windows (light), a double ambulatory, five radiating chapels and double aisles continuing to the choir. A stone construction, rib vaulted with diagonal and transverse ribs it is three storeys tall – nave, triforium over the nave arcade and a tall clerestory filled with stained glass forming a dominant feature of the elevation giving it more height and allowing more light.

This era featured churches that were built to appear that they were “reaching for the sky”, as a symbolic expression of religious aspiration (stretching towards heaven). In terms of decoration the cathedral was seen as a monument of literature in stone. In the absence of the scientific, historical, poetic, and romantic literature of modern times, the literature of the Bible and its lessons and stories were taught and told by painting and sculpture in default of printed books through church paintings and sculptures and stained glass. The over-riding aim in the decoration of church interiors is to convey the message of the Gospels.

Gothic Art & Architecture: Private Funery Chapels and their Decoration, including English Chantry Chapels

The primary purpose of private funery chapels, including English Chantry Chapels was to help the founder pass through ‘purgatory’. 

 In Christianity, in addition to accepting the states of heaven and hell, purgatory (seen more as a waiting place) was believed to be a third state before being admitted to heaven as some souls are not sufficiently free from the temporal effects of sin and its consequences to enter the state of heaven immediately.  Such souls, ultimately destined to be united with God in heaven, were meant to endure purgatory— a state of purification. The Catholic Church taught that the fate of those in purgatory could be affected by the actions of the living such as praying for the dead. For this reason many began to build private chapels. Christians began to pray to Saints (who could break the boundary between living and dead) for help and for the souls of their dead loved ones to help them pass from purgatory.

 Until 1247, masses were public whereas in 1247, the church officially accepted purgatory in Catholic doctrine and this provoked privatisation of masses. Over time, churches started saying Mass for the dead. By 1300 there were special spaces in churches for Masses for the dead, for example, Philip II of France endowed priests at the cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris for the soul of Duke Geoffery.

Chantry Chapels were buildings on a private land or a dedicated area within a greater church, set aside or built especially for and dedicated to the performance of the chantry duties by the priest. Rich donors endowed chantries along with land, the income from which paid the chantry priest (chantry meaning fund). All this was based on the idea of release from purgatory.

It was not until the thirteenth century that such chapels became common, and by that time, most of the available space in the churches had been already occupied, hence we find chantry chapels stowed away in corners and odd places.

Being intended for private, not public, Masses, they were frequently smaller than other chapels. 

Vacant spaces in aisles and transepts, or, as in many larger churches, between the pillars of the nave, lent themselves to their accommodation, though sometimes they were distinct buildings annexed to the church.

Whenever possible they were placed near the tomb of their founder, and very often such tombs were either enclosed within the chapel itself or actually adjoined it.

Like other chapels they were invariably screened off from the rest of the church; wooden screen-work was perhaps the more common, but some notable examples still exist in England of chantry chapels, like miniature sanctuaries, screened and vaulted in stone and of surpassing beauty. Such are Prince Arthur’s chantry at Worcester, the Founder’s chapel at Tewkesbury, the chantries of William of Wykeham and Cardinal Beaufort at Winchester (1400), and those of Bishop Bubwith and Dean Sugar at Wells. Sometimes the chapel was placed above the tomb and reached by a winding staircase, as at Christ Church, Oxford. 

In size they were private and miniature referring to the religious order of the church, that is, Franciscans and Dominicans in C14th.

In design this meant a prime place near the high altar was considered prestigious as was the size and elaborate ornamentation.

In terms of decoration the Gothic Chapel presented persons of wealth commemorated with tombs bearing their effigies testifying to the status and achievements of the deceased. Cost was seen as a clear way to gain spiritual return. They were elaborate architectural forms displaying a wealth of sculpted decoration serving as a testament to the status of the deceased.

However such chapels differed from other interior chapels as they were only in being erected and endowed for the celebration of Masses of requiem, in perpetuity, for some individual soul, generally that of the founder himself.  It was clear through the art of the time, though, that people had death on their minds. However, according to Christianity, Jesus rose from the dead so death was placed at the centre of the religion.

Artists’ emphasised on the democratic nature of death, which steals away both rich and poor, nobleman and peasant, pagan and priest, opened the door wide to a general questioning of the culture on which the Medieval synthesis had rested, such as the divine right of kings.

The temporal body stood as a sign for the condition of the eternal soul.

The decorations often included the images of afterlife such as the Virgin and Saints as intercessors (faith healing) with family saints or name saints in the sculpture or as part of the painted altarpieces, for example the glorious Beauchamp Chapel in St Mary’s Warwick, built in C15th to house the tomb of Richard Beauchamp, the Earl of Warwick, one of the richest and most powerful people in the history of England or based on the theme of the Last Judgement.

The Winchester Cathedral is famous for its beautiful chantry chapels, where daily masses were said for the souls of the powerful bishops who built them. A total of seven, were added between the 14th and the 16th centuries. This is more than any other English cathedral, reflecting Winchester’s great power, wealth and royal connections in this period. The chantry chapel of William of Wykeham Bishop of Winchester 1366-1404 includes his tomb and chantry chapel, where daily masses were said for his soul, in the nave’s south aisle. Into the south nave arcade Wykeham incorporated an elaborate open-work chantry chapel that rises to the level of Triforium. The chantry was constructed on the site of an altar dedicated to the Virgin Mary, where as a boy Wykeham had served the mass. Inside the chapel he placed a glorious alabaster tomb chest decorated with shields of arms and with a polychromed recumbent effigy of himself in full pontificals on the top. At the feet of Wykeham are placed three figures of praying Benedictine monks. In his will Wykeham provided revenue for three monks from the cathedral priory to celebrate three masses in his chapel on a daily basis and presumably the figures are a reference to that provision.  Altogether the nave, chantry and tomb of Wykeham are a wonderful example of a unified scheme of late medieval memorialisation.

The Beauchamp Chapel at St Mary’s Warwick (founded in 1123) is dedicated to Our Lady. Composed of three bays, at the centre of is the tomb of Richard Beauchamp, raised on a pedestal and surrounded by an iron fence. The effigy of Earl Richard is set upon a chest of Purbeck marble, with a canopy above, and latten (gilded in copper alloys) weeping figures below.

Its extravagance is shown by the cost and high quality materials used. It was one of the most expensive architectural commissions of its day, costing just over £2,481, plus an additional £720 for Beauchamp’s tomb. The extremely high cost can be better understood by comparison with the large collegiate church and almshouse built at Tattershall (Lincolnshire) in the 1460s, which amounted to £1200, a staggering half of what was expended on the Beauchamp chapel.

The chapel forms a separate liturgical space (as attested in Beauchamp’s will), south of the chancel and east of the south transept. A doorway connects it to the transept at the west and to the chancel through a passage north of the chapel sanctuary, opening into the burial places of both Richard’s father and grandfather. The chapel itself is particularly broad and is lit by seven large windows in the upper half of the side walls culminating in the east window; the largest window of all. The rest of the interior is covered with panelling on all surfaces, both internal and external, with emphasis put on the east window by the deeply moulded figural jambs and by highly decorated canopied niches which surround and flank the glass.

Both the decorative and architectural frameworks greatly illustrate the idea of ‘harmony’ and ‘unification’ which is imbued within the iconography of every surface of the chapel. Beauchamp’s tomb is located directly beneath the ceiling boss of the Virgin. Thus, his eyes are kept firmly on her ‘hoping for her intercession and his own salvation [while] the harmony of the earthly music of the priests and clerks in the chapel with the heavenly music of the angels is depicted in the windows.

 This practice ended in 1529 with the Reformation when the parliament banned payment of masses for the dead.

Development of Gothic architecture from c.1250 onwards

In the 13th Century the newly founded orders of Franciscans and Dominicans erected large hall churches of unassuming sobriety. The simplicity and functional character of these buildings, shown in such structures as the interior of Santa Maria Novella in Florence contrasts with the trend toward richness in ornamental elaboration apparent in later Gothic architecture. In the 14th and 15th Centuries, these tendencies culminated in intricate webs of tracery, as in the towers of the cathedrals at Ulm and Strasbourg in Germany and in the flamboyant style of the Church of Saint-Maclou in Rouen in France (1437-50). In England the same exuberance of decoration is manifested in the Decorated Style of Bristol and Ely cathedrals and the even more elaborate Perpendicular Style, exemplified in the choir of the Cathedral at Gloucester or Westminster Abbey.

Building activity was seriously affected by the economic crises of the 14th century and by the Black Death hence the later Gothic constructions were far less ambitious in scope than those of the preceding period. However, the Gothic tradition never completely died out, and in the 19th century it enjoyed a revival in Europe and in the New World inspired chiefly by the Romantic Movement we know as Gothic revival.

Until about 1250, Gothic architects concentrated on the harmonious distribution of masses of masonry and, particularly in France, on the technical problems of achieving great height. However, after that date, traditionally, this period is broken into two periods: the “Geometric” style (1250–90) and the “Curvilinear” style (1290–1350) of decorated Gothic (1300-75).

This 13th century style canonized proportions and shapes from early Gothic and developed them further to achieve light, yet tall and majestic structures. The wall structure was modified from four to only three tiers: arcade, triforium, and clerestory. Piers coronations were smaller to avoid stopping the visual upward thrust. The clerestory windows changed from one window in each segment, holed in the wall, to two windows united by a small rose window. The rib vault changed from six to four ribs. The flying buttresses matured, and after they were embraced at Notre-Dame de Paris and Notre-Dame de Chartres, they became the canonical way to support high walls, as they served both structural and ornamental purposes.

The Decorated Gothic (1300–75) style in England was characterized by the application of increasingly elaborate geometrical decoration to the structural forms that had been established during the preceding century such as the west front of York Minster is a fine example of Decorated architecture, in particular the elaborate tracery on the main window. This period saw detailed carving reach its peak, with elaborately carved windows and capitals, often with floral patterns. Interiors of this period often feature tall columns of more slender and elegant form than in previous periods. Vaulting became more elaborate, with the use of increasing number of ribs, initially for structural and then aesthetic reasons. Arches are generally equilateral, and the mouldings bolder than in the Early English Period, with less depth in the hollows and with the fillet (a narrow flat band) largely used. The ballflower and a four-leaved flower motif take the place of the earlier dog-tooth. The foliage in the capitals is less conventional than in Early English and more flowing, and the diaper patterns in walls are more varied.

 

Much of Exeter Cathedral is built in this style, as is the crossing of Ely Cathedral, (including the famous octagonal lantern, built between 1322–1328 to replace the fallen central tower), three west bays of the choir and the Lady Chapel.

Perpendicular Gothic conveys an impression of a “cage” of stone and glass, typical of Perpendicular architecture. Elaborate Decorated style tracery is no longer in evidence, and the lines on both walls and windows have become sharper and less flamboyant. The Perpendicular style began to emerge c. 1350. It was a development of the Decorated Style of the late 13th century and early 14th century, and lasted into the mid-16th century.

The introduction of the perpendicular lines was a reaction in the contrary direction. The style grew out of the shadow of the Black Death which killed about half of England’s population in 18 months between June 1348 and December 1349 and returned in 1361–62 to kill another fifth. This had a great effect on the arts and culture, which took a decidedly morbid and pessimistic direction. It can be argued that Perpendicular architecture reveals a populace affected by overwhelming shock and grief, focusing on death and despair, and no longer able to justify previous flamboyance or jubilation present in the Decorated style. The style was affected by the labour shortages caused by the plague as architects designed less elaborately to cope.

This perpendicular linearity is particularly obvious in the design of windows, which became very large, sometimes of immense size, with slimmer stone mullions than in earlier periods, allowing greater scope for stained glass craftsmen. The mullions of the windows are carried vertically up into the arch moulding of the windows, and the upper portion is subdivided by additional mullions (supermullions) and transoms, forming rectangular compartments, known as panel tracery. Buttresses and wall surfaces are likewise divided up into vertical panels. The technological development and artistic elaboration of the vault reached its pinnacle, producing intricate multipartite lierne vaults and culminating in the fan vault.

Doorways are frequently enclosed within a square head over the arch mouldings, the spandrels being filled with quatrefoils or tracery. Pointed arches were still used throughout the period, but ogee and four-centred Tudor arches were also introduced.

Inside the church the triforium disappears, or its place is filled with panelling, and greater importance is given to the clerestory windows, which are often the finest features in the churches of this period. The mouldings are flatter than those of the earlier periods, and one of the chief characteristics is the introduction of large elliptical hollows.

Some of the finest features of this period are the magnificent timber roofs; hammerbeam roofs, such as those of Westminster Hall (1395) where Henry VIII finished the Lady Chapel, dedicated to Henry VII. This chapel, in Perpendicular style, is noted for its superb fan vaulting. The two western towers were built (1722–40) by Sir Christopher Wren and Nicholas Hawksmoor. In the late 19th cent Sir George Gilbert Scott supervised extensive restoration. From that time memorial statues by many academic Victorian sculptors have been added to the decor. The present church is cruciform in plan; both nave and transept have side aisles. The choir is apsidal in plan, and its ring of chapels exhibits the only complete chevet in England. French influence is also seen in the height of the nave, the loftiest in England, and in the strongly emphasized flying buttresses. Nearly every English king and queen since William I have been crowned in Westminster and it is the burial place of 18 monarchs. England’s most notable statesmen and distinguished subjects have been given burial in the Abbey since the 14th cent. In the Poets’ Corner in the south transept rest the tombs of Chaucer, Browning, Tennyson, and other great English poets.
Another notable example is Christ Church Hall, Oxford.

Romanesque 1000-1200: Impact of the Consolidation of the Christian Chruch

Christianity continued to be the dominant driving force for most significant building works. The flowering of the Romanesque style in the 11th century coincided with the re-assertiveness of Rome, as the capital of Christianity, and its influence upon secular authorities led to the Christian re-conquest of Spain (began 1031) and the Crusades to free the Holy Land from Islamic control.

The Crusades, which were intended to wrest the Holy Places of Palestine from Islamic control, sought to excite a great deal of religious fervour. This in turn inspired great building programs, led the Nobility of Europe, upon safe return, to thank God by the building of a new church or the enhancement of an old one and commemorate those Crusades never returned suitably. The Crusades also resulted in the transfer of, among other things, a great number of Holy Relics of saints and apostles.

The acquisition of Holy Relics by the Crusaders, together with the fervour aroused by their campaigns, triggered the construction of a wave of new churches and cathedrals across Europe.

The system of monasticism in which the religious become members of an order, with common ties and a common rule, living in a mutually dependent community, rather than as a group of hermits living in proximity but essentially separate such as the Benedicts, the Cluniac order, the Cistercians, Carthusians, Augustinian Canons and, in association with the Crusades, the military order of the Knights Templar also led to church building.

In Italy, they include the Cathedral of Pisa with its famous leaning campanile (bell tower), Modena Cathedral and Parma Cathedral, as well as famous churches like the Santa Maria (Rome), the Baptistery (Florence), and San Zeno Maggiore (Verona).

In France, they include Laon Cathedral (among others), and the abbeys of Cluny, Aux Dames (Caen) and Les Hommes (Mont Saint-Michel).

In England, they include Cathedrals such as Winchester, Ely and Durham.

In Germany, they include Augsburg and Worms Cathedrals (among others) and the abbeys of Mainz, Worms, Speyer and Bamberg.

In addition to its influence over international politics, the Roman Church also exercised growing power through its network of Bishops and its close association with Monastic orders as mentioned above. From these monasteries, Bishops and Abbots exercised a growing administrative power over the local population, and devoted huge resources to religious works, including illuminated gospel manuscripts, cultural scholarship, metalwork, sculpture and church building.

This is exemplified by the powerful Benedictine monastery at Cluny in Burgundy, whose abbey church typified the Romanesque style of architecture and became the largest building in Europe until the Renaissance.

Romanesque Architecture relied on several design features from Greek and Roman Antiquity; Romanesque architects had neither the imagination of the Greeks, nor the engineering ability of the Romans. Moreover, Roman building techniques in brick and stone were largely lost in most parts of Europe. Hence, in general, the style employed thick walls, round arches, piers, columns, groin vaults, narrow slit-windows, large towers and decorative arcading.

The basic load of the building was carried not its arches or columns but by its massive walls. Its roofs, vaults and buttresses were relatively primitive and the interiors were heavy with stone, had dim lighting and simple unadorned lines. Despite its relative simplicity of style, Romanesque architecture did reinitiate two important forms of fine art: sculpture (which had largely disappeared since the fall of Rome) and stained glass. But given the size of windows in Romanesque style buildings, the latter remained a relatively minor element until the advent of Gothic designs.

Sculptural decoration began with the monastic institutions and remained confined to the interior of the monastic closure. It was not until the very end of the 11th century were sculptures taken out of the sanctuaries henceforth the facade of the basilica was treated like a Roman arch of triumph.

Sometimes sculptured figures covered it completely, but usually they were assembled around the portal which was the place of transition from a depraved world to the world of God.

The iconography of the Last Judgment as the last stage in the work of Redemption can be connected with the iconographics more directly associated with the work of Salvation, and so once again these images accentuated the penitential role of the tympana (semi circular decorated wall surface over the portal).

But once it became public, sculpture also sought to be a demonstration of orthodoxy. In opposition to the threatening sects (jews, moslems) whose leaders, denounced as heretics, were pursued and burnt, the tympana, the lintels and the column statues proclaimed first and foremost that God blessed those who erected magnificent monuments to his glory. Showing the apostles, prophets and Christ too in the body, they proclaimed that the Word was made flesh, that he had lived among men.

Showing at Moissac the risen Christ surrounded by the twenty-four Elders as the author of the Apocalypse had seen him at Patmos, giving on Autun Cathedral a glimpse of the Last Judgment, meant lifting a corner of the veil, inaugurating the apostolate by which the good news was spread to the far corners of the world, as the great scene exposed for the instruction of pilgrims on the tympanum at Vezelay has demonstrated in masterly fashion for nine centuries.

Gothic Art and Architecture c.1140-1540: Depictions of Death, Dying, Heaven and Hell in Panel Painting, Wall Painting and Manuscript Illumination.

Scholars say that no artistic representation of Satan was produced before the sixth century. They suggest that belief in Satan was only made official by the Ecumenical Council of 553. So, until the Devil’s existence was certified, the Church had little reason to commission portrayals.

From then on, however, and throughout the Middle Ages, devils, demons and representations of Hell as well as depiction of death, dying and the last judgement came to cover entire walls of major churches and were found throughout illuminated manuscripts, in paintings, sculptures and architecture.

 As Christianity grew and spread, so did belief in the Devil, who was blamed for illness, accidents, immoral behaviour, crop failures and natural disasters. He was also said to be the leader of enemies of the Church, such as heretics, Moslems, and Jews. This belief was furthered by the Black death of 1348.

Art during the Middle Ages was primarily an instructional tool of Christianity, and so Hell was a frequent subject. It was shown as a cruel underground world filled with monstrosity, deformity and horrific creatures, designed to strike fear into viewers’ hearts. Medieval churches were filled with detailed pictures comparing Heaven and Hell, prominently displaying to congregants, most featuring Jesus, Protector of virtuous souls, enthroned at the top centre.

The purpose was to frighten sinners with threats of torment. In book illumination, panel painting, stained glass, and sculpture, artists turned Christian beliefs into arresting images of damnation and salvation intended to unsettle and motivate their audiences. 

Fra Angelico’s Last Judgement, (1431, Museo de San Marco), a relatively unknown triptych depicted heaven; center: the Last Judgment; on the right: Hell. In its various scenes, we can sense the frantic atmosphere, experience the images of decomposition, feel the fear reinforced by the Church of the horrors one may face by turning away from God.

In Duccio’s Descent to Hell (1308, Museo dell Opera, Florence) Christ is depicted descending into hell, where he finds many prophets and forefathers in limbo, i.e. in a separate space where they were waiting for redemption. They could not move on to heaven until their sins had been washed away. Christ frees them after having crushed Satan under his feet. 

In The Three Living and the Three Dead (c. 1480, Bruges) by Flemish Master of the Dresden Prayer Book  one can see expressions of stark terror appear on the faces of noblemen on horseback as several corpses risen from the dead suddenly block their path. On the page’s borders, disguised among golden leaves and beautiful flowers, a skull stares out at the viewer as a reminder that death is hidden in all worldly delights. 

Therefore the best way to prepare for death was to continually remind oneself of its inevitability. One of the ways to remember death was to remember the pains of hell in the afterlife if one led a sinful life.

Dying the good death was the ideal situation for any Christian; a prolonged sickness, or advancing old age, would give an individual ample time to consider one’s sins, confess to a priest, repent, perform penance, and achieve salvation. Numerous deathbed scenes in medieval writings recount a dying person’s crucial last moments — whether he would turn to God and repent or whether he would be caught up with more worldly concerns such as the distribution of his wealth.

The Danse Macabre, or Dance of Death, thus became a popular artistic motif in the late Middle Ages. The Danse Macabre frequently showed the inevitable death of each class, from peasant to knight; the victim is often resistant, but is pulled along by a grinning skeleton to the grave.

Over this period the church evolved rituals for dealing with the dying and the dead and preparation for the afterlife. People needed to have a good death so that they would go to heaven through means such as penance and confession.

The Ars Moriendi, or Art of Dying, was a didactic treatise that gained popularity in the vernacular in the fifteenth century. In a woodcut from a German Ars Moriendi shows the dead man, his widow beside him, surrounded by saints who pray for his soul. Above, the image of Christ on the Cross looms over the scene. Below him are fiends to tempt him. One of the angels has received his tiny, naked soul. This common depiction of the soul emphasizes the fragility of the human moral condition, as the soul appears helpless before the angels and demons that fight for it. 

It was also printed and many copies still survive illustrating dying in a state of preparedness,  that is, absolved of sins. The priest was meant to do two things after death – offer Mass to benefit the soul in purgatory and provide a funeral service (Office of the Dead).

Throughout the Middle Ages, death and the afterlife were stirring subjects that challenged and inspired the creativity of the artists who illuminated manuscripts. Delightful and disturbing visions of heaven and hell fuelled the viewers’ imaginations. Books adorned with depictions of God’s mercy, saved souls in paradise, and the rewards of the blessed instilled hope, while morbid and sometimes horrific illustrations of funerals, demons, and the punishment of the wicked prompted pious Christians to repent for their sins. At the core of visual devotion stood images of Christ’s Passion and crucifixion, promising resurrection and eternal life.

Patrons of Art in Northern Renaissance c.1480-1580 (Religious & Civic)

The Roman Catholic Church was very powerful in Europe at this time. In Germany, there were no princely patrons of arts and learning as compared to the Renaissance popes and the Medici in the south. Nor was the new culture here exclusive and aristocratic. There was no specially defined language meant purely for the literati. Artists worked mainly for religious patrons – and after 1520, for the Roman Catholic Church, with seriousness, as this was the nature of Renaissance & Renaissance Humanism in the North at this time.

Easel painting flourished throughout the period; the iconoclastic (destruction of art works) movement that accompanied the Reformation proved to be a significant setback for religious painting, whereas secular subject matter arose in popularity as a result. This is also because the Reformation let to the secularisation of ecclesiastic institutions. Images, especially, became effective tools for disseminating negative portrayals of the church (Satire on Popery) and for popularizing Reformation ideas; art, in turn, was revolutionized by the movement. Artists, sympathetic to the movement developed a new repertoire of subjects, or adapted traditional ones, to reflect and emphasize Protestant ideals and teachings. More broadly, the balance of power gradually shifted from religious to secular authorities in Western Europe, initiating a decline of Christian imagery in the Protestant Church.

The Counter-Reformation (1545-63) which was a period of Catholic revival, where the Roman Catholic Church reaffirmed Catholic Doctrine and denounced Lutheranism, had more of an impact in Italy and Spain, probably because they were geographically far removed from Germany. In the north Lutheranism continued to have a strong hold.

German humanism sought the general spread of intelligence, and was active in the development of primary and grammar schools. Humanism here entered into religious service and was of a more serious nature. The Germans may have received an impulse from the South, but made their own path and were far from being slavish imitators.

German scholars may have lacked intelligence or brilliance but they were more rigid and serious in their approach and purpose and therefore more exact in their scholarships than the Italians. This brought a serious note to the community as a whole filtering down to the arts.

In the South, the ancient classics absorbed the attention of the literati but in the north there was not a hint of affiliation to Antiquity. There was no consuming passion to translate the classics into German as there had been in Italy and nor did Italian literature find imitators in the North.

Attention was chiefly centred on the Old and New Testaments. Greek and Hebrew were studied, not with the purpose of ministering to a cult of antiquity, but to reach the fountains of the Christian system more adequately. In this way, preparation was made for the work of the Protestant Reformation. Focus on translation was a feature of the Christian humanists who helped to launch the new, post-scholastic era; among them were Erasmus and Luther. In so doing, they also placed biblical texts above any human or institutional authority, an approach that emphasized the role of the reader in understanding a text for him or herself.

 

Influences on Flemish Renaissance

Socio-Eco:

• Trade & Commerce (Textile) – Flemish Cities were the centres of culture and economics – richest parts of Europe. Cities like Bruges in the 15th century and Antwerp in the 16th increased cultural exchange between Italy and the Low Countries.
• Patrons

The Burgundian Dukes – were excellent patrons of the arts. Their interests were along the lines of illuminated manuscripts, tapestries and furnishings.

• Nobility – The Burgundian nobles and rich traders were able to commission artists, creating a class of highly skilled painters and musicians who were admired and requested around the continent. This led to frequent exchanges between the Netherlands and Northern Italy. Examples are Flemish painter Jan Gossaert, whose visit to Italy in 1508 in the company of Philip the Handsome left a deep impression.

1. Rising middle class like traders and merchants and their demand for paintings. E.g. Artist Robert Campin (1375-1444). Small religious paintings from this time were not commissioned by the church because they would be too small for public display in large-scale chapels or churches. The rising middle class had great interest in these.

1. Local pride was often reflected in 15th century paintings that featured actual city views. Quality and prices were set by the Guild’s officers. In the beginning art was made on demand, but then made “in bulk” and sold at fairs.

The devastating impact of the Reformation on German Renaissance Art

The Protestant Reformation was the movement that resulted in a divide in Christianity between Roman Catholics and Protestants. It posed a successful challenge to the spiritual and political power of the Church in Rome and was a very powerful historical force that impacted this period.  Generally speaking, the Northern countries became Protestant, while Southern countries remained Catholic.

As a result a phenomenon called iconoclasm induced a wave of destruction of religious imagery. The destruction of religious images during the Protestant Reformation, along with neglect, changes in taste, fire, and the secularization of ecclesiastic institutions account for this loss. Many images were attacked destroyed during this period. All forms of Protestantism showed a degree of hostility towards religious images, as idolatry, especially sculpture and large paintings. Protestantism taught that since God created man in his own image, humanity is perfection.

In terms of subject matter, iconic images of Christ and scenes from the Passion became less frequent, as did portrayals of the saints and clergy. Narrative scenes from the Bible, and, later, moralistic depictions of modern life were preferred. Some scenes showed sinners accepted by Christ, in accordance with the Protestant view that salvation comes only through the grace of God.

Another reason for this was that during the Reformation, when Luther and other reformers looked to the words of the Bible they found that many of the practices and teachings of the Church about how we achieve salvation didn’t match Christ’s teaching. This included many of the Sacraments, including Holy Communion (also known as the Eucharist). According to the Catholic Church, the miracle of Communion is transubstantiation—when the priest administers the bread and wine, they change (the prefix “trans” means to change) their substance into the body and blood of Christ. Luther denied that anything changed during Holy Communion. Luther thereby challenged one of the central sacraments of the Catholic Church, one of its central miracles, and thereby one of the ways that human beings can achieve grace with God, or salvation.

A new artistic tradition was born that embraced the Protestant agenda and diverged drastically from the southern European tradition and humanism. Art that did seek to portray religious figures or scenes followed Protestant theology by seeking to portray people and stories that emphasized salvation through divine grace and not through personal deeds or by intervention of church bureaucracy. Satirical woodcuts became an effective means of disseminating Lutheran ideas. Book illustrations and prints were more acceptable, because they were smaller and more private.

Development of Painting in Northern Europe between c.1480-1580

• The German Renaissance was noted for its graphic arts and printmaking. German artists took the lead in the development of the art of printmaking, as well as book publishing, both of which flourished throughout this period.
• Even long before Gutenberg had begun to print books, small skiffs, printed from wood blocks, had a wide circulation. Later, block-books made their appearance in the form of bound series of woodcuts with a few lines of text.
• Two factors operated to accelerate the spread of Renaissance culture after 1450: growing economic prosperity and the printing press. Prosperity — the result of peace and the decline of famine and the plague — led to the founding of schools and colleges.
• Sometime in the 13th century, paper money and playing cards from China reached the West. They were “block-printed,” that is, characters or pictures were carved into a wooden block, inked, and then transferred to paper. Since each word, phrase or picture was on a separate block, this method of reproduction was expensive and time-consuming.
• The extension of literacy among laypeople and the greater reliance of governments and businesses upon written records created a demand for a less-costly method of reproducing the written word.
• The import of paper from the East as well as “block-books” were major steps in transforming the printing of books. However, woodcuts were not sufficiently durable as they tended to split in the press after repeated use.
• By the middle of the 15th century several print masters were on the verge of perfecting the techniques of printing with movable metal type and the first man to demonstrate this was Johannes Gutenberg.

Impact

• This allowed the humanists, reformists, and others to circulate their ideas.
• The immediate effect of the printing press was to multiply the output and cut the costs of books.
• It made information available to a much larger segment of the population who were eager for information of any variety.
• Libraries could now store greater quantities of information at much lower cost.
• Printing also facilitated the dissemination and preservation of knowledge in standardized form — this was most important in the advance of science, technology and scholarship.
• Printing spread new ideas quickly and with greater impact.
• Printing stimulated the literacy of lay people and eventually came to have a deep and lasting impact on their private lives.
• Although most of the earliest books dealt with religious subjects, students, businessmen, and upper and middle class people bought books on all subjects.
• Printers responded with moralizing, medical, practical and travel manuals.
• Printing provided a superior basis for scholarship and prevented the further corruption of texts through hand copying.
• By giving all scholars the same text to work from, it made progress in critical scholarship and science faster and more reliable.

Northern Renaissance Art c.1480-1580

Contribution of Northern artists to this period: In art, the term “Northern Renaissance” refers to the developments in art from c.1430 to c.1580 which took place in two main areas: In the Netherlandish Low Countries of Flanders and Holland and the second was in Germany.

German Renaissance *Up to the mid-16th century, the Netherlandish areas were ruled by the Dukes of Burgundy: thereafter by the Hapsburgs, who also ruled much of Germany.

German humanism began in 1450 with the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the 1450s. Almost all people in the middle class could read at this point. There were no princely patrons of arts and learning and nor was the new culture here exclusive and aristocratic. As opposed to the south, the university and school played a much more important part than religion. They were persuaded by the Reformation, though most continued to take commissions for traditional Catholic subjects. The representatives of the new scholarship were teachers; even Erasmus taught in Cambridge. New universities sprang up. It sought the general spread of intelligence, and was active in the development of primary and grammar schools. As a result, a strong, independent and intellectual current was pushing down.  German scholars were less brilliant and elegant, but more serious in their purpose and more exact in their scholarship than their Italian predecessors and contemporaries. They were far from being slavish imitators. They received an impulse from the South, but made their own path taking little interest in mythology, apart from Cranach’s nudes (Female Personification of Justice 1537, or Venus 1532). Cranach lived in Wittenberg after 1504 and painted portraits of Martin Luther, Philip Melanchthon and other leaders of the German Reformation. Holbein made frontispieces and illustrations for Protestant books and painted portraits of Erasmus and Melanchthon.

The German Renaissance was noted for its graphic arts and printmaking, both connected to German expertise in the printing process, as in the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the 1450s. Another early German pioneer of drawing and engraving was Martin Schongauer (1448-91) from Colmar whose greatest altarpiece, Madonna of the Rose Bower (1473)can still be seen today at St Martin’s church in Colmar.

Even long before Gutenberg had begun to print books, small skiffs, printed from wood blocks, had a wide circulation. Later, block-books made their appearance in the form of bound series of woodcuts with a few lines of text. Along with Engraving and Etching, Portraiture was another area in which German artists shone, as too was wood carving. The expressionist side of the German character made itself felt in a number of intense religious works, including outstanding altarpieces and panel paintings.